Origin of Eukaryotes

* The origin of eukaryotes is important to understand the origin of modern complex cells. There are three main separate theories that hypothesize the origins: the three-domain system, eocyte theory, and endosymbiosis. Each one have there own merits and evidence supporting. These theories suggest the evolution of cells from the most primitive prokaryotes, unicellular organism having cells lacking membrane-bound nuclei, to the most complex eukaryotes, single or multicellular organisms with a membrane enclosed nucleolus and organelles. The Three Domain Hypothesis refers to the proposal by Carl Woese in 1990 that; archaebacteria form a monophyletic group, this clade is sufficiently different from all other prokaryotes to deserve elevation to a separate Domain called Archaea (the other two Domains are Bacteria and Eukarya each arising from a progenote), eukaryotes are more closely related to archaebacteria than to other prokaryotes, and the root of the universal tree of life lies in the branch leading to Bacteria. The three-domain system met with some opposition on the differences between archaea and bacteria. Research of large subunits of RNA polymerase, some aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases (aspartyl, leucyl, tryptophanyl, and tyrosyl), and outer membrane molecules distinctions indicated that Woese was right in the classification and that these organisms were so genetically distinct (in the 165rRNA genes and differences in cell structures) that they needed their own domains. * In the 1984 James Lake theorized eukaryotes evolved from a specific group of ancestrial archea, the eocyte. The idea that eukaryotes could have arisen from a lineage of prokaryotes, using expanded molecular sequence datasets and phylogenetic approaches. Using a matrix of amino acid sites, traditional methods such as maximum parsimony resulted in the 3-domains topology, but an eocyte tree was obtained when maximum-likelihood and Bayesian analyses were performed. In sum this analyses provide support for the eocyte tree, rather than the 3-domains tree. This is supported by the concept that eukaryotic nucleo-cytoplasm evolved from within archaebacteria. Eukaryotes would have had to replace their old lipid synthesis with a eubacterial-type system since the operational genes of eukaryotes are primarily eubacterial, not archaebacterial (National Academy of Science of the United states 2008). Eukaryotes are seen as an evolutionary marvel for they can pack hundreds of energy-generating mitochondria into a single cell. Hundreds of millions of years ago, eukaryotes formed permanent colonies in which certain cells dedicated themselves to different tasks, such as nutrition or excretion, and whose behavior was well coordinated. This specialization allows them to grow, and evolving into new elaborate purposes. These cells have a true nucleus, bound by a double membrane. Prokaryotic cells have no nucleus. The purpose of the nucleus is to sequester the DNA- functions of the eukaryotic cell into chamber for increased efficiency. This function is unnecessary for the prokaryotic cell, because it is much smaller in size; materials within the cell are close together. There is an area of nuclear DNA unbound by a membrane called a nucleoid. Eukaryotic cells are larger, more advanced and have a higher output of energy in comparison to Prokaryotes. Lynn Margulis (1970) defined the hypothesis of Endosymbiosis as the engulfment of one cell by another larger cell, with the engulfed cell evolving into an organelle. Margulis claimed that as a result of communal and parasitic lives, bacterial cells turned into plants and animals through endosymbiosis. In this theory, plant cells developed when a cyanobacteria (chloroplast) was swallowed by another bacterial cell and animal cells were formed through mitochondria being engulfed by host cell. Another example is between a termite and microorganisms in its gut. The termite consumes wood, but it cannot digest it, the protozoan’s in the termite's gut break down the cellulose into simple sugars which both organisms can digest. When the protozoa digest the wood cellulose, they release acetic acid and other acids that the host termite is able to metabolize. Thus, the termite and the protozoan uniquely supply food for each other (Applied and Environmental Microbiology 2005). The origin of the eukaryotic cell was important, since they include all complex cells and almost all multi-cellular organisms. The timing these events is hard to determine, each hypothesis have there own evidence that support itself. Until further evidence can be found scientists can only speculate on the origins of Eukaryotes.

Difficulties Interracial Couples Experience

I see interracial couples all the time facing unique struggles and lacking support from family, friends and multiple others. Having knowledge of the reasoning behind this lack of acceptance will help one form a greater understanding that may enable an individual to adjust the judgmental difficulties that they are faced with in an interracial union. The interactions with people that mixed couples experience can be viewed as symbolic interactions because the gestures and words that are interpreted often in negative ways can contribute to the difficulties faced.People deal with racial struggles all over the world. Different countries experience a greater degree of struggles than others. Since Canada is a multicultural country, one might assume that interracial couples would be more accepted and faced with less racial struggles. Unfortunately, that is not the case; couples are still ridiculed. In present day, it's true that interracial couples are more accepted now than years previous bu t support of exogamy is still low. A mere fifty years earlier, the thought of a mixed union was a taboo. During the era of segregation, a mixed union between an AfricanCanadian and a Caucasian person was unthinkable. The federal government in Canada has a history of polices that have attempted to separate races from joining in relationships. A vivid example of Canada's attempt to control and prevent interracial intimacies is the Indian Act. â€Å"The Indian Act, with all its variations, clearly restricted and provided penalties for interracial sex and marriages. † (Real Canadian History, 2012) Some of the discrimination that mixed couples receive today, from individuals has been passed through the previous generations.Though, as generations become more educated they re likely to be more opened minded. The history of views on interracial relationships has contributed to the lacking acceptance experienced in present day. There is no one definitive answer as to why there is hatr ed toward mixed unions, what does exist in the scholar world are a few general statements that provide some understanding. Most Of the problems that interracial couples face relate to racism, discrimination and prejudice. Today's â€Å"young people, who have went to college are educated and more commonly opened-minded. (Bridge News, 2007) This generation is commonly the population participating in interracial unions and they are often more accepting. â€Å"Their parents however, are not as educated and are still strong believers of sticking to your own race. † (Bridge News, 2007) This is a reason why some parents disapprove of mixed relationships. Parent's opinions are often very important to their children. Stereotypes about different races can also influence the views that a parent could have regarding an interracial union that their child is apart of. Prejudice often results from the mismatch between beliefs about the attributes typically possessed by members of a social group (that is, their stereotype) and beliefs about the attributes that facilitate success in valued social roles† (On the Nature of Prejudice, p. 19). Similarly, â€Å"[On the Nature of Nature of Prejudice] argue[s] that the potential for prejudice exists when social perceivers hold a stereotype about a social group that is inconsistent with the attributes that are believed to be required for success in certain classes of social roles† (p. 3). Parents are non-accepting when such perceived stereotypes are negative. Jon K. Mills at Vanderbilt University did an investigation Of a group with 142 undergraduates on the receptions of family acceptance concerning interracial relationships. Mills concluded, â€Å"both Black and White students indicated that family perception of these interracial relationships would be negative† (Family Acceptance Involving Interracial Friendships, p. 349). The most common question that is asked of mixed couples is â€Å"what do your par ents think of your relationship?This is more evidence that parental disapproval is a common difficulty that mixed couples endure. â€Å"Hate still looms as aforementioned because of the inherent survival mechanism that many racial groups want. It is a form of protection almost. † (Lotus, 201 3) Parents have a hard time accepting or even considering the idea of having a grandchild that is mixed with another race different from their own. â€Å"Ezekiel (1995) argues that racists often fear their own survival as a group and hate gives them comfort and assurance that their survival will be met or achieved. Another common issue in mixed unions is the joining of different religions and different cultures. Couples are usually supportive of each other's beliefs but often run into problems. Some religions pacifically disagree with marrying outside of the said religion. More generally couples run into issues such as dietary restrictions. As an example, practicing Muslims do not eat po rk and all of their meat must be hall. Different religions lead to different holidays, which can keep couples wondering which traditions they Will pass onto their kids.Interracial couples are ridiculed often because of the difficulties they will pass onto their children. â€Å"In October 2009, a Louisiana Justice of Peace refused to perform a marriage for a mixed-race couple because he was concerned with the rejection and confusion their hillier would experience growing up† (Curry, 2010). Some mixed couples decide not to have children because they do not want their children to go through the things they have experienced and to avoid the difficult decisions of which traditions to pass forward.This is another contributor to why individuals do not accept interracial couples and it is also a difficulty regarding important decisions that mixed couples must make. A lot of research regarding interracial couples reveals that such couples face difficulties that are often due to family opinions. There are multiple reasons why families, specifically parents, do not accept mixed unions. Such reasons have been elaborated on and it has been expressed that parental opinions are often a large influence in one's life.When parents have negative views on mixed relationships, it places a burden upon children participating in such relationships. It is true that other factors such as religious and culture differences, give difficult problems to mixed couples as well; such factors are not always as detrimental because they are outweighed by the benefits they receive in the relationship. Research on mixed relationships also revealed any unknown benefits of these relationships.

Education and Edutainment Essay

The idea that learning can be fun, and fun can promote learning, is transforming attractions that once saw themselves as primarily either education- or entertainment-oriented. It’s even spawned a new word: edutainment. The American Heritage Dictionary defines edutainment as â€Å"the act of learning through a medium that both educates and entertains.† In that definition, learning is the key element. We’d suggest that when applied to the location-based entertainment (LBE) industry, the emphasis is switched. We define LBE edutainment as â€Å"events, programs and attractions where the entertainment qualities are the primary draw, with the learning or education being a byproduct.† We see edutainment as any entertainment that also delivers educational content in an entertainment format. It consists of two equally important parts: the format (entertainment) and the message/content (education). Our research indicates the first use of the word edutainment was for educationally oriented CD-ROM games used to teach children in an entertaining way. As best we can determine, our company was the first to apply the word in the LBE industry to describe the children’s play & discovery centers we starting producing for our clients in the mid-’90s, which we called ‘children’s edutainment centers.’ The articles we authored about edutainment centers published in industry magazines during the late ’90s imbedded the term into the industry’s lexicon. Given a choice between just education, just entertainment, or a combination of the two, more LBE guests prefer the two-fer. A couple of examples: One survey of videogame manufacturers and designers found that they believe that a game with up to 50% educational content will still be perceived as entertainment. And many informal learning institutions like zoos, museums and botanical gardens are adding entertainment elements to their offerings in recognition of the greater appeal of this combination.

MARKETING COMMUNICATION Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 6000 words

MARKETING COMMUNICATION - Essay Example The process of creating, maintaining and enhancing strong, value –laden relationship with customers and stakeholder’s {Kolter et al 1999, p11}.The development of on-going (and, if possible, constantly deepening and improving) relationship, as opposed to one –off transaction. A key principle is to extend the duration, or lifetime, of a customer’s purchasing relationship with the firm, and therefore to maximise their ‘‘life time value† that is, the future flow of net profit arising from the relationship. Transactions are single exchanges between an organisation and customer: a single market exchange in the form of a purchase {goods exchange of information or influence (such as an offer and a response). The focus of transaction marketing(TM) is to look to each transaction or encounter as an opportunity to maximise short term gain, without necessarily considering future contacts, or the effect of this transaction on the potential for future contacts. At its worst, transactional marketing can be seen as manipulative or exploitative approach (Egan, 2004).it has been recognized that: transaction marketing is inadequate to cope with today’s business environment. A focus on single transaction fails to leverage the potential inherent in the customer base, and other relationship, to add value for the organisation and for the customer. E.g., it fails to gather on-going customer feedback which could be used to refine marketing strategy Relationship marketing intentionally aims to retain customers (keep them purchasing repeatedly over time) and foster customer loyalty (create a favorable attitude or bias which drives repeat purchase). Research by Fredrick Reichheld, a management consultant at Brain & co, found that a high correlation between customer retention and company profitability: retained customers are more profitable than new customer for several reasons. Is an interactive approach which builds a database of all communications and

Fashion Market Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2750 words

Fashion Market - Case Study Example The essay "Fashion Market - UK" talks about UK fashion marketing. Zara is a leader in providing variety and choice to its consumers. It has been able to produce around eleven thousand styles every year and is highly design driven. Therefore freshness and innovation is a key strength of Zara. H&M Fashions is another well known brand for the fashion market in UK. It stands for Hennes & Mauritz and is based in Sweden. H&M has positioned itself in the middle and high range of the market. Marketing at H&M is regional and therefore cost-effective. The company has an exemplary supply chain cycle, where clothes move from design to hanger within twenty one days. Its communication is more informative than being centered on image. French Connection United Kingdom; more popularly referred to as FCUK is another fashion brand whose marketing and communication strategy has been looked into in this report. The retail store was founded in 1969 in London. It happens to be one of the first British comp anies to cater to the men’s casual wear market and later extended into both formal and informal clothes for men, women and children. To date the highest share of revenue comes from the menswear collection which is trendy, fun and a favourite for men all over the world. An interesting point to note here is that analysts claim that the company has benefited from its suggestive marketing campaigns. The research methods include both primary and secondary. The assortment has been clearly done to reflect an exploratory research framework. It is a mix of both qualitative and quantitative in nature. The quantitative part of the research has been included to point to recognition and recall of certain advertisements. It is based on clearly thought out and formulated procedures which allow triangulation and lend thoroughness to the research. The primary research methods include in-depth interviews with the target market of these brands; which includes the fashion conscious youth aged between 16-25 mainly. Four in-depth interviews were conducted; two with girls and two with boys of different ages. Interviews were also conducted with marketing personnel of the brands in question. Other than that focus groups were conducted with the same audience who were put together in groups of sixes for the exercise. An observational exercise was conducted; the purpose was to test the recall and recognition of such advertisements. All this research was supported by questionnaires conducted at university campuses as well as these store locations. Lastly, in-store analysis was done to understand the sort of image the store was trying to project. This was done for stores in different locations all over United Kingdom. The secondary research methods comprised mainly; magazines with special reference to fashion magazines, internet resources such as ebsco, Brunell electronic library and news updates. In addition to this; newspaper clippings and case studies were used for reference. Market Overview The UK fashion industry is worth an estimated 44.5 billion pounds. According to statistics in 1960 around 10% of the household budget was spent on clothing and footwear. Due to lower cost of product and the huge influx of

I Sought My Brother Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

I Sought My Brother - Essay Example Evans and S. Allen Counter (Harding 1). These two authors transverse the Suriname rain forests, of the independently new black republic along the South American central north coast. Driven by a deep feeling of ancestral calling, the authors went to seek ways out, in which the communities descended from enslaved Africans that rebelled against their Dutch masters and fled into the jungles in the last half of the 18th century. As a result, stunning pictorials have been presented due to the series of pilgrims. Allan counter was very interested in finding out about the Bush African Americans of whom were basically untouched by modern civilization and lived deep in the jungles of Suriname in absolute isolation (Harding 1). Counter wanted to know how much of the original African culture was retained by the Bush African Americans because he thought it is significant for all African American people. The accounts of I sought my brother are condensed experiences from 1972 to 1978. However, the two authors are successful in conveying the feeling of strong emotions as well as the spiritual experience that were considered central to the adventure of courage. For example, during the last several days of the perilous boat ride on the first adventure, the authors eventually met the people they were looking for, and were overwhelmed by the thought of having traced their living ancestors, their pre-slavery bloodline of whom were still alive. In addition, Evans and Counter documented very well the totality, vitality as well as life of the mostly remote African American river communities in Suriname (Harding 1). Viewing the numerous pages of photographs, in both black and white and in color format, it is easily understandable why the authors said, â€Å"our eyes continuously told us we were in Africa, while our minds knew we were in South America.† One interesting thing about the villager’s traditions

Department of Defense (DOD) Information Technology infrastructure Research Paper

Department of Defense (DOD) Information Technology infrastructure Audit - Research Paper Example This will achieved by CompTech’s detective controls. The company will provide an alarm system that uses laser technology to detect intrusion and report it immediately to the police. This will ensure that the confidentiality of data and information within the DOD is safeguarded from intruders. The department of Defense (DOD) within its directives provides that DOD information must be protected from security breaches by one or more physical controls (Online Information for Defense Community 2012). It is in this regard that that the CompTech Inc. will provide physical security through locks which inhibit access to sensitive data and information within the DOD. Physical barriers will be installed within the DOD to prohibit access to data warehouses. The physical barriers that CompTech Inc. will provide for the DOD include passwords to entry and exit doors including the elevators. Through physical protection, the privacy of data within the department will be guaranteed. In order to comply with the information security program that is recommended by the DOD, CompTech Inc. will ensure that the department recovers quickly from any losses of data that emanate from security breaches. The company will achieve this through the design and installation of data recovery software that will act as a corrective control for data losses. This will ensure availability of data for use without any delays hence implementation of quick corrective measures. The Critical Program Information within DOD’s requirements and directives will be adhered to by CompTech Inc. in its procedural controls. The company will design and present training applications will help employees within the department to have adequate skills and knowledge on safeguarding the system. This will lead to a situation where the integrity of information within the DOD is maintained. CompTech Inc. will provide the DOD with secure systems which are designed and installed with firewalls,

Bioswale final deliverable Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Bioswale final deliverable - Essay Example This issue combined with the excessive rain washes contaminants from cars that drive through these areas polluting the water that remains stuck for long periods of time in these ditches.Onesolution for this problem is the construction of a Bioswale as seen in Figure 1, which is designed to remove silt and pollution from surface and runoff water by acting as a natural bio-filter. The construction of a Bioswale would also help prevent mosquito nesting and would reduce the types of fumigation toxics which are sprayed in these areas to keep the mosquito population down. We will work closely with our community partner, ERAUFacility Management, in the designing and implementation of the Bioswale. Stormwater, parking lot, rooftop and residential water runoff can cause significant pollution in various cities and residential areas. Undeveloped areas provide a means of controlling surface runoff, but when rain falls on developed areas, infiltration and absorption of water is diminished. In most developed urban areas, the stormwater carries a lot of trash, heavy metals, bacteria and other pollutants generated in urban centers, hence degrading the quality of water in the receiving water bodies. Harmel et al 8 (715) â€Å"Water is drained through the collection systems that convey the surface run off to water bodies like the rivers and lakes† . Additionally, high flows are dangerous to buildings, animals, and human beings. It can cause erosion and floods that damage properties, infrastructure, and habitats. Green infrastructure such as bioswales, permeable pavements, it has been emphasized in Booth et al 3(p 315), that planter boxes and rain gardens can be used to manage storm water and create healthier environments in urban centers† Booth et al 3 (315). â€Å"Bioswales are vegetated, mulched linear ditches designed to control stormwater through infiltration, conveyance, and filtration† (Jurries 8). They are intended to enhance the function of conveying systems by

Devise a strategy so that the NY Cheese Company can protect itself Case Study

Devise a strategy so that the NY Cheese Company can protect itself against foreign exchange risk - Case Study Example Thirdly, is the continuous assessment of the program’s success in order to improve the system. Fortunately, there are ways that the NY Cheese Company can hedge its risks. One way is by hedging the cash flow since it only impacts the balance sheets rather than the income statements over the life of the hedge (Jain 20). In the case of NY Cheese Company that buys cheese from the Chinese company and pays for the same using the US dollars, then it means that the foreign company will have to purchase the local currency to cover its costs. If there is a fluctuation in the dollar against the Yuan, then it means that the foreign company will have to increase the cost of the cheese exported to the NY Cheese Company in order to cover for the same. Hence, the best solution for the NY Cheese Company is to pay for the cheese supplied by the Chinese Cheese Company in local currency; thus, manage the foreign exchange risks on its own. Secondly, the NY Cheese Company can go for a short dated forward contract, which is quite effective as compared to the cash flow hedging. The main reason why f orward contracts are effective is that they are easy to execute; hence, they are flexible enough and can be rolled over into a new hedge after the completion of the period. If the NY Cheese Company manages to use the future contract a way hedging the foreign exchange risks, then it means that the company will be able to increase its revenue since there would be a reduction in the costs involved when there is a fluctuation in the currency. Similarly, the company will not have to worry about price instability. This is because the Chinese company will be obligated by the contract to sell cheese at the stipulated amount without putting into consideration the current spot rate of the dollar against the Yuan. This is the main reason why it is advisable for the NY Cheese Company to use the forward contract as a way of hedging the foreign exchange risks since it is

Art History Comparcomparisons Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 4000 words

Art History Comparcomparisons - Assignment Example To achieve this inspiring effect, each building makes heavy use of stairs to gain entry and tall columns representing the measurements of the Golden Rule to express both their impressive size and their perfection of form. Despite the fact that the Altar of Zeus was built with the Parthenon in mind, builders opted to use Ionic columns that were considered more modern than the Doric style used in the earlier building. In addition to the actual construction, both structures use life-sized or taller statues to celebrate the greatness of the civilization that constructed it while also telling the story of the gods as a means of honoring the power and wisdom of the ruler of the day. The Parthenon’s friezes depicted scenes of battles between the gods and mythological races such as the giants and the centaurs, as well as the defeat of the Amazons and what is believed to be the citizens of Troy, images that are repeated by obvious Parthenon inspiration in the Altar of Zeus. However, the Altar of Zeus concentrates on depicting scenes from battles between the gods and the giants, rather than illustrating scenes with the other races. The buildings might have been used in different ways as well. While the use of the Parthenon is in some debate, definitely used as a treasury and possibly also as a temple, the Altar to Zeus was built specifically to be a temple. Comparing these two images, there are several immediately obvious similarities, most prominent being the large domes of each, the vertical columns and the predominantly square base structure. There remain some significant differences as well. Even though the dome of the Church of Hagia Sophia seems to be larger, thanks to the emphasis it receives by the vertically reinforcing influence of the tall windows along its sides, the dome of the Pantheon is actually somewhat larger, having been considered the largest dome in architecture.  Ã‚  

Maltese Falcon Movie Review Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Maltese Falcon - Movie Review Example It also had a choice of setting, which was an urban landscape. This film is not only renowned for its long-term popularity, but also its considerable contribution in either changing or inaugurating key aspects of the film industry. Like the Film Noir by Paul Schrader, Maltase Falcon also presents a darker view of life. This contributed to a change in the film industry since most of the previous films majorly concentrated on human despair, failure and depravity. Maltase Falcon and Film Noir both share some common themes like dark, tormented obsessions and sexual divergence (Shrader 57). For instance, both the films strongly advocates for gender equality, as they perceive men as weak and women as powerful. â€Å"Black widow† is preselected as a powerful woman as she seduced, exploited and killed her partners (Shrader 59). The film has a happy conclusion to the audience because Sam who has since been frustrated because of his color and personality finally becomes a hero and achieves his existential identity in spite of all the shortcomings in his

Time Management Essay Assistance Essay Example for Free

Time Management Essay Assistance Essay he majority of people recognize that time is one of the most valuable things of our life. However why do we usually lack the time to do or to complete something? Why do we generally complain we have little time for a rest, for close friends, for reading and etc? Well, the answer is pretty simple – we do not know how to deal with the time we have got. College students that are assigned to compose an essay on time management receive the ability to discover more about this vital activity. Here are a number of items that should be included in your essay on time-management. Firstly, you have to make clear to your potential readers what time-management is. Be brief – itll be good enough just to state that this is planning for the effective use of the time you have got, to be able to do all the things you have to do. The second part of your time management essay will be a detailed description of the principles of time management. For instance: Change your approach –dont get worried about all the assignments you have got and your stressful way of life. Organize your activities by their priority. Organise yourself and carry out a routine during the day. Write down your responsibilities and do all of them one after the other. Do not forget to be selective – if you see that you is unable to do all of them by the due date, select the most significant ones and do them first Try to give yourself some additional time – if it requires thirsty minutes to have lunch, leave fifteen more minutes extra for a little break after it. Begin your day-book, online diary, or website where you can observe the improvement you make with time management. These are just some popular rules of time management. Nevertheless, there are far more recommendations that have to be followed to control your time effectively. Its highly recommended you seek online and get as much info as you need to write your essay on time management. Needless to say, keep in mind that your time management essay should include your own point of view: do you manage your time properly? Do you personally use the tips of time management and so on? At last, complete your ess ay with a short summary and conclusion. If you still think you cant write a good time management essay yourself, you  can always count on high quality help of the best custom writing company. It will certainly give you a high quality essay at a reasonable price. All the orders will be unique and guaranteed to be plagiarism free. Skilled writers will create a paper with outstanding content and properly formatted with whatever style you require; MLA, APA, Chicago and Harvard are the most frequently used. Youll have the chance to stay in contact with your assigned writer through the â€Å"chat† system. Simply let ptofessionals know you want help – and be sure youll be not disappointed! Youll be pleased with your order! Do not miss this chance! Put your order now and start to control your time successfully!

Types and Functions of Organizational Structures

Types and Functions of Organizational Structures The structure of an organization is very similar to that of a house or any other building. Before the building will stand up, it has to be based on solid foundations. Then the organization structure generally is establishing internal authority relationships, responsibility for work performance, and paths of communication and control required for a company to achieve its objective. After that, what is the function of organization structure? Well, there is few function are there. First is setting strategic direction, by this function we know how the organization was going and how it is going to get there. Next is identifying core values, this is about what the organization stands for and also what it does not stand for. Leading with vision, is to encourage the employees, the customers and the other stakeholders. Setting objectives, important for the company to set goals of the organization, or what it is going to try to achieve next. Next function is talking decisions and action to move toward the objectives, this is about what the future planning for the company and know which direction is the company heading. Directing, controlling and coordinating, this is for moving the organization towards its goals. Next is evaluating performance and lastly is reviewing strategic direction, to make sure the organization is using the correct strategic to avoid any lost. Type of organization structure There is still many other type of organization structure around like cluster structure, regional structure, flat structure and more. But then the chosen organization structure by me is Customer Structure, Functional Structure, Matrix Structure, Network Structure, Process Structure, and Product Structure which is easier to see in the real world. Based on the research the functional structure is most beneficial to the company we have selected. Below is the chosen organization structure for this assignment. Customer Structure Structures around customer segments are successful where there are obvious customer segments defined by need, economics, distribution and other key attributes. Divisional/customer structures are effective: where well-defined customer segments have been identified; or when selling products/services unique to segment; or when using buyer strength; or when leveraging customer knowledge advantage; or when requiring rapid customer service and product cycles; or when perceiving minimum efficiencies of scale in functions or outsourcing; or when promoting a strong marketing/customer-focused culture. Royal Philips Electronics  [1]  is an example of a customer-facing structure. Functional Structure A functional structure is a highly traditional structure and is often found in strong command and control organizations such as the military. The key strategy of functionally focused organizations is to maximize margins through leveraging economies of scale and functional expertise. Functional structures are effective when: there are stable and undifferentiated markets with well-understood customer requirements; or there is a successful, control-focused enterprise culture; or there is a small, single product line; or there is scale or expertise within each function; or there is long product development and life cycles; or the organization works to common standards. The functional organization has some obvious advantages, but it also has large disadvantages. The expertise in the organization is centralized and enabled to develop further. This will also involve a kind of cultural homogeneity: People have the same academic background, they use the same technical models, and they perform tasks within the same function. All these factors are seemingly fine, but the problem is that the different professional groups distinguish themselves, distance themselves from each other, do not understand each other and easily come into conflicts with each other. Under the functional structure, major functions are the focus. Product knowledge is centered in manufacturing, engineering, and marketing, and management of each of these departments is responsible for both domestic and international activities. Advantages of the Functional Structure First is Emphasis on functional expertise. The key business tasks define work and functional expertise is brought to bear on all aspects of the operation. Second is tight control. This centralized functional approach permits a small staff to control the firms operations. Top management has authority and operational responsibility. Third is Prevents We versus Them conflicts. The absence of secondary profit centers prevents internal conflicts. Disadvantages of the Functional Structure First is weak regional coordination. Disputes between functional managers must often be resolved at the corporate level. The CEO is often asked to solve problems in areas in which he or she lacks expertise, such as international business. Second is in firms with multiple product lines, functional structure can lead to top-heaviness. In multiproduct firms, functional managers need expertise in each product, or a functional manager is needed for each product. Matrix Structure An overused word, the Matrix has a particular meaning in structural terms. In organizational structure terms, Matrix is the version in which staff from different function work together on projects in a matrix pattern. So, a finance manager can cooperate with a sales person to secure a new contract or to rescue the costs of serving a client. The benefit is that the organization can respond quickly and effectively to changing demands from either a client or the business environment. In the process, the skills and experience of the team can be developed and honed quickly and successfully. Against this, there can be confusion on reporting conflicts and the organization can appear to be fragmented and constantly in a state of flux but, then many organizations are constantly changing anyway. Matrix structures typically operate in two dimensions and are usually one of three types: functional matrix, balanced matrix or project matrix. The aim of the matrix structure is to provide customers with innovative where: or core work is project-based or the work requires small groups of people; or projects require highly specialized skills and knowledge; or project skill requirements vary greatly; or labor cost is a prime economic driver. General Motors  [3]  is an example of a matrix structure. Network Structure Network structures are valuable for fast-moving organizations that are highly innovative and operating in an environment that requires speed, flexibility and high levels of customer focus. In network enterprises work is organized around team and unit delivery, often because units have distinctively different ways of working. However, as the units work in combination, the delivery to the customer is seamless. The movement of a parcel from point of dispatch to point of delivery, via a company such as UPS  [4]  , is an illustration of a network structure. Process Structure As the name suggests, the focus here is on the process of how to go about the work, usually in a smooth, almost horizontal way. There is often virtually no vertical function in that, provided a team keeps its clients and other stakeholders happy, it is left alone to get on with its job. This type of structure can enhance cross functional working and general cooperation. On the downside, it can also result in the work flow being regarded as more important that the end product, so quality can suffer. Responsibility can also be diffuse, which can be disadvantages to some employees and customers alike. Perhaps the major issue is that the vertical chimney effect can blind managers to the possibilities of stronger cooperation, tighter cohesive strategic thinking and the benefits of centralized, corporate planning. In this structure the focus is on processes where core services are operated across the enterprise. Internal support services are frequently organized in this way but customer-facing services are equally well served by this structure, which is a good alternative to the functional structure. Process focused structures work well when: or there are well-defined processes serving different customers (internal/external); or there is potential for new processes and/or radical change to processes; or there is a requirement to reduce working capital; or there is a need to reduce process cycle times; or there is little interdependency between core processes; or there are different cultures/workforces between core processes. Product Structure A divisional/product structure is the most appropriate in a business where there are low synergies between the buyers and the distribution channels of the different divisions. Typically, in this structure each division runs as an independent business unit. Divisional/product structures are effective when: stakeholders perceive low synergies between products; or there are different purchasing process/distribution channels; or there are different operating requirements for success; or there is a different competitive environment; or there are short product development and life cycles; or there is a minimum efficiency of scale for functions or outsourcing. Product organization is a significant form of organization today. It is particularly useful in organizations with clearly separated product groups or services. Quick changes in competitive conditions and technology cause great advantages for this organizational form in preference to functional organization. The advantages of product organization are that the specialists in the organization are able to focus on one specific product group and make quick decisions. Also, the final result will also be much clearer than in functional organization where responsibilities are often volatilized. Danone  [5]  is an example of an organization structured on product lines as the following extract from its website illustrates. In order to handle such a task, many organizations have experimented with different structural solutions, which include setting up groups or project groups across the established structure (basic organization). The language use in there solutions is a bit hesitant. There are three types of organizations; ad hoc organizations, project organizations or matrix organizations. It is not a matter of making repairs on an organization but of developing a double-acting organization in which large parts of the organization is prepared to live with crossing lines. Comparing Structures Conclusion For the organization structure, the decision of structure that has chosen is functional structure. Why choose this? Because

Mcdonalds rewards

Mcdonalds rewards The Reward System I have read the reward system of McDonald and personally we are very impressed and committed with this so that’s why we are gating that idea from McDonald reward system. A Global food services retailer knows as McDonalds is the leading global foodservice retailer. Details about its operations: Founder : Ray Kroc Number of Restaurants : 31,000 Approx Number of People Serve : 58 Million Approx (118 countries) 75% of McDonalds restaurants worldwide are owned and operated by independent local men and women. Some famous dishes of McDonalds World Famous Fries, Big Mac, Quarter Pounder, Chicken McNuggets and Egg McDuffie. The well-built foundation that he built continues today with McDonalds idea and the commitment of our talented managers to keep the shine on McDonalds Arches for years to come. http://www.aboutmcdonalds.com/mcd/our_company.html Reward system of McDonald For McDonalds Corporation U.S. employees at corporate, division and region offices, our many benefits are organized into four categories: Security and Health Security, health and insurance remuneration Medical Vision supplement plan Dental stretchy spending accounts Short and long term disability Employee and dependent life insurance Accidental death dismemberment (ADD) Travel and business travel accident insurance Salaries and Rewards Remuneration, compensation, reward and recognition programs Basic pay motivation pay Company car program Recognition programs Future incentives Reserves, investment and financial management programs Profit Sharing and Savings Plan MCDirect Shares Mc$ave Credit union Financial planning services Others benefits Job/life remuneration leave Holidays Anniversary splatter Sabbatical program Summer Hours Leave of absence substitute Work Approach taking up assistance Kids concession Educational support identical gifts program worker Resource relationship Auto and home insurance group concession program International Fitness Club Network afar Work Internet discount program http://www.aboutmcdonalds.com/mcd/careers/employee_benefits.html Now we can discuse in detail the reward system The Reward System Statement and knowledge are significant components of the change procedure. However even if the change message is well communicated and well conservative, and people are given the chance to study so they can act if you see in the quite new atmospheric no one can go to alter their performance. If they see theyre not leaving to revolutionize. What do you thing the reward system is important? If the company fail to give the reward to employees you can see that effect will go to company profit because of this company will go downward. So the reward system will be play main role in it. If you give the benefits to your employee you see every employ will try to improve work for the organization. People only work for the rewards. Reward system is very attractive thing for employees of the organization, reward system increase and enhance their working capacity and commitment. For some people the reward may be mostly monetary. Similar like this any company or any Originations rewarding system always brought positive crash. Rewards Rewards are grand arent they? But keep in mind, so when the reward goes to employ the employ will use that benefits of the organization and with the help of this they also maintain the life and enjoy every moment of life. Now you want them to work in a different way. and to behave differently And dont remember, they are thoughts if Ive got to labor to get unique skills, whats in it for me? Hows it going away to work if Im doing an enormous job, but the other team members arent why should I lose out because the others arent performing? And how am I going to move ahead if there are smaller number levels in the association? What sort of prize determination I get? Is it worth the attempt to change? So previous to plummeting ahead with a alter project, you need to reply a few question concerning the current and prospect reward system. Primary, regarding What are the current rewards? What is at present rewarded? How do you provide the reward? And then about the future organization What do you want satisfied? What are the rewards leaving to be? Whats the score system going to be? Whos going to be doing the scoring? How will rewards be given? Who is leaving to be satisfied? Who will do the rewarding? CEOs, heads, directors, managers, supervisors, and simultaneous Engineering team members all need to be informed of the answer to his question upfront. And make it unadorned frank to the people who do the rewarding that if they dont give a reward that is due, they will be in deep problem because it will give the feeling that youre not grave about change. And once people start thinking that youre not serious concerning change, and start to hesitation your honesty, and then no one is leaving to alter their activities. The not on time moderator Tuttle said, the expert mans only asset is himself. If he does not contain the quality of honesty he is valueless. If he does he is invaluable. Good alter managers must have the excellence of integrity, and are invaluable. http://www.aboutmcdonalds.com/mcd/careers/employee_benefits.html Do YOU AGREE WITH PROFERMCE LINKED AWARD SYSTEM? I would like to share copied the meaning of Reward system along with that what is reward? Why we should be decided with satisfying scheme within our association. Plunder are great arent they? But keep in mind, after the hard work when the company give the attractive pay and other things for this hard work with the help of this the company goes up for these benefit in the shape of reward employee enjoy the life and that enjoyment makes his mind to more hard work for the company and for more to get the reward and make the life good and the employee desire them to work in a different way and good treat. Then you want prize them in a different way. Primary,ok and that benefit into the shape of reward change the employee’ you can get the prospect. Youll want to reward them for changing getting the right skill and behave the right way. Youll want to prize them for going a bit additional than average and doing things really right. Performance management includes processes that effectively communicate company aligned goals, evaluate employee performance and reward them fairly. Your Pay and Rewards (ref from McDonald’s reward system) Attractive program follows a pay for appearance beliefs: The better your results, the greater your pay opportunities. Base Pay Since employees bottom pay is the most important portion of their recompense, McDonalds maintain the competitiveness of our base pay through an annual review of both external market data and interior peer data. In our business, division and region offices, McDonalds has a broad banding compensation system. Broad banding allows for suppleness in terms of pay, movement and growth. Incentive Pay Inducement pay gives our workers with the possibility to earn spirited total compensation when performance meets and exceed goals. For our corporate, parting and region office, the Target Incentive Plan (TIP) links employee presentation with the presentation of the business they hold up. TIP pays a gratuity on top of employees base salaries base on business presentation and their person appearance. Long Term Incentives Long term incentives are granted to entitled workers to both prize and retain key employees who have shown continued presentation and can crash long-term value creation at McDonalds. for the befits of employees the long term incentives are very helpful because when the organization has a policies of incentives or long term incentives then the employees of the organization feel secured and work hardly for the organization. Similar like this any company or any Originations rewarding system always brought positive crash. Recognition Programs Our recognition programs are intended to reward and recognize physically powerful performers. For our corporate, separation and region offices, these take in the president Award (given to the top 1% of individual performers worldwide) and the Circle of fineness Award (given to top teams worldwide to be familiar with their aid for advancing our vision). Once start to hesitation your honesty, and then no one is leaving to alter their activities Appraisal system is also very helpful and makes a positive competition and encouragement in between the employees of the organization. Promotions will be appraisal based which encourage employees for hard work. Company Car Program Our company car program provides entitled employees with a company car for both business and individual / personal use. If entitled, employees can decide from. This is also very encouraging and motivating incentive for employees. It creates competition between employees and they work hard to get this incentive. I had explained earlier above in easy words which are also explaining the definition of rewarding system within Organization. I am really agreed by satisfying system in any system which is very much helpful for the worker of company or Organization’s person who is been rewired in past work more harder for future to get better achievement in his life’s would like add one simple example of satisfying system why we should be agreed because if we deliberate hard then institution of higher education Reward us with Degree which greet the internal feelings of any person. Similar like this any company or any Originations rewarding system always brought positive crash. Rewarding system is basically encouragement for employees and appreciation for their hard work. Rewarding system is very beneficial for the organization too. Rewarding system always longed-for either it is for client reward to make them content for keep coming back to you or reward for urn worker for the best services. Rewards for clients or employees is very attractive and worth full. Organization will get many benefits from awarding system. The primary emphasis: In the approach discussed above is on as long as monetary plunder to be familiar with teams and cooperation. A recent study shows the feasibility of using non-financial rewards for this purpose. The study (Shaw Schneider, 1995) focussed on recital and reward management practices in large organizations using full-time teams of excused employees. Its results point to that only one-fourth of the organization surveyed used financial rewards to be familiar with teams; the rest used a wide variety of non-financial rewards including public recognition of high performing teams. Many organizations reward employees who are effectual team contributor through highly valued job and team assignments. Teamwork itself can provide intrinsic rewards through swelling and enrichment of work. Being a member of a well-known, highly prestigious team may be perceived as an even more intrinsically pleasing reward. Much organization gives targets to their employees. When they achieve their target, organizati ons reward them. Devising reward systems: A figure of design issue should be kept in mind while devise prize systems to be familiar with team success and human being team members aid to this achievement. To begin with, it is very important to set team objectives which spell out evidently what is usual from the team. These objectives can then be used to decide team level prize. Sometimes, teams are encouraged to compete against each other for a team level prize. This practice can hamper cooperation, information-sharing, and coordination across teams. Inter-dependencies among teams should be considered before implementing such competitive rewards. The next main issue relates to the distribution of team level reward among individual team members. Reward could be dispersed equally or differentially. Equal distribution can endorse cooperation among team members. But, it can also. DESIGNING A REWARD PROGRAM The keys to just beginning a reward show is as follows: Credit of corporation or group goal that the reward program will support Identification of the desired employee performance or behaviours that will strengthen the companys goals strength of mind of key measurements of the performance or behaviour, base on the person or groups preceding achievement Determination of suitable rewards Communication of program to employees. This system is depends on Employees performance and behaviour, if there performance and behaviour is positive then they will get more benefits from the organization. On the other hand, if they their performance and behaviour is not good then there is not reward for them, this will be encourage them for hard work and positive and good behaviour. DIFFERENTIATING REWARDS FROM MERIT PAY AND THE PERFORMANCE APPRAISAL In scheming a reward program, a little business landlord needs to divide the salary or value pay system from the reward system. monetary rewards, especially those given on a regular basis such as bonuses, gain sharing, etc., should be tied to an employees or a groups activities and should be careful pay at risk in order to coldness them from salary. By doing consequently, a manager can avoid a sense of entitlement on the part of the employee and ensure that the reward] highlight fineness or achievement rather than basic competency. Performance appraisal is based on the performance and behaviour of the employees, this is very beneficial for the company to make a good competition between the employees, if company give those benefits on the basis of their performance and behaviour / attitude and hard work, and this will encourage and attract the other one who is not performing well. Conclusions It is very much clear that current prize systems require changes to fit with the rising organizational realities. Skill-based pay, broadband pay structures, variable pay, and team rewards are among the new approaches that have been suggested in the creative writing. When we will give those Prizes, rewards, pays according to their skills and behaviour and performance then they will feel secured and this will increase their working skill. The discussion in this paper indicates that logic underlying this approach appears to be sound, but many key design issues confront them. I-O psychologists and other behavioural scientists can play a significant role in addressing this issue. Question: How will you define a Career? Describe the Strategies adopted for career development in Organization. Definition: The initiative for your future has long been searched in the social sciences. It has been described as being in connection with individuality and as long as a residual trace of the individual’s relationship with work. A constructionist approach to research enables a focus on the language of career-talk as an opaque incidence. The analysis of 54 interviews with university alumnae working by one large, UK based, high street seller provides an illustration of how common sense understandings nearby career work as a backdrop to individual financial records. Career as a strategic plan is denied, yet negotiate as a legitimate, even attractive, behavior of the employing association. Although the focal point of analysis is on the tools and does of communication, situated at a micro level, this analysis illustrates how specific constructive practices make worldwide notions of career relevant and up for re-negotiation in interaction Palming for making the good future: How are major UK utilizing institutions commerce with career growth in situation which we are told threaten the very idea of a future career? Carer building is one the important aspect of human resource management and it plays an important role in motivation of employees. Pressures building change in the concept of good career as imbursement together safety and series have come from hard works shortage and continually changes in company. They have brought attractive and beautiful successful ways leave the work protection, very less job atmosphere, no one can made the career. These things which are different on the earth one more thing raises for the success of these jobs. Growth we mean all those performance increasing the human mind and then he use the batter in the work as well as teaching and guidance. Changing tasks The case study organisations plays their role in this in this investigates have surely been under strong stress to review their facts about career growth. Most of them have abridged the promise of the organisation to managing the career progress of the labour force from director of manager. It was explained that in job shift batter meant of future (career) employer managed it. (Board of director who had the power and daily basis employer for the well result specially arranging the employee (by the employee)( personal development plans). Modified to over come organisational and individual need. Segmented strategies What is visibly incidence is that beneath the universal rhetoric of career growth (most often about helped self-development), real strategic place differ from each other Workforce to another: Older managers and experienced workers are receipt rehabilitated attention and are still usual for career with the farm either if it is not career of life. Successful plan work stay for long-time, and the build-up the group is also planned. For the career improvement: The maximum hard workers here the original company problem. if the every one try to encourage and push up the others so the that thing will be improve the level of activity in the organization and for this everyone will be honest with the job and the organization will be improve day by day Knowledge of the organisations in this investigate research plan based on gap point of three Keyes .each of which needs to be stopped up before oratory and realism align. A complete honest message The primary hole is flanked by the wants of the business and the fixed message from the top concerning careers and advance. This gap occurs either because the career expansion point is no good, it is badly and not fair linked or because it is poorly or dishonestly communicated. Specific the original career development place may be segmented, belied by a worldwide message. Workable career development processes. The moment hole is involving the career improvement clue accepted and the processes or interventions which HR people put in place. At in attendance these processes do not seem to bring into line with the message, they do not fit jointly, and they are not well unspoken. Real intention to deliver The third break is stuck between the official messages — of rule and/or processes — and the realism of employment and development practices. This hole clearly occurs if the message is lying. It also occurs if workers see that systems are not important for used, actually that previous plan are not suitable for promise and causes. It is just because of this gap that recourses for labour force to observe career growth scheme as mere rhetoric. What workers and their managers need at current is a much clearer sight of: The assumptions the company is creation about their prospect service and its intention to support their progress Practical processes for deploy people and delivering enlargement which are consistent with these intention The reserve and promise for taking these types of program used If we see in past we can get that simple ways in which the company could use the out test for the planed strategies and special and important clues for the good results. Ref: www.aboutmcdonalds.com.

Stephen King - Film Elements :: essays research papers

The African Jihads Jihad, the Muslim word meaning holy war. During the 18th and 19th centuries, this word brought fear to anyone who did not fully believe in the Islamic state and resided in West Africa. The Jihads of this era not only changed the faith of many people, but also the landscape of West African democracy. Although Islamic Jihads had occurred in the past, they never surmounted to the magnitude of those of the 18th century. What factors and leaders caused the West African Jihads, of the 18th and 19th centuries, to be so effective? The people of West Africa were tired of governments who constantly over taxed its constituents, and simply did not care for the well being of common individuals. The Islamic religion, which was brought to Africa by Muslim traders, provided individuals a new opportunity of promise, equality, and the possibility of becoming a spiritual being. Islam embraced the majority of West African people and became known as the dominant religion of the region. During the end of the 18th century followers of the religion came to the conclusion that it was simply not sufficient to have Islam be the dominant religion of the area. They felt that Islam needed to be part of the government, instead of having the separation of church and state. In the 18th and 19th centuries the Islamic population of West Africa united with the common belief that under Sharia(Islamic law) the government would not oppress individuals, and the law of the Koran would become the law of the land. "The Sharia provided an alternative model of government with which to compare and confront rulers." This movement, which focused on expelling the non-Orthodox Muslim leaders of West Africa, is due to the leadership of Usman Dan Fodio and Al-Hajj-Umar. These men paved the way for the expansion of Islam through the creation of the Orthodox Sokoto and Tukolor Empires. The rise of the Islamic Jihad and the expansion of both Empires, are at the outset due to the oppression of the Fulbe people in the early 1700''s. The Fulbe were pastoralist nomads who at the time had settled in the region of Futa Jalon, which is present day state of Guinea. In this region the Fulbe were oppressed by the ruling pagan farmers, who considered them intruders to the land. These pagan authoritarians subjugated the Fulbe people to extraneous taxes and enforced several laws to keep them from trading. Due to these extreme factors, the Fulbe looked to answer their miseries by turning to the religion of Islam, which promised a better future.

A Good Death :: essays research papers

A Good Death   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Death is final. Some die naturally in a peaceful manner while others suffer through tremendous pain in order to get there. Euthanasia is the only way for some people to leave all their pain behind. Euthanasia is the act of killing another person in a merciful way. Of course, euthanasia has many more meaning to it than that. A person that is suffering from a terminal illness decides that life is not worth living because there is too much pain involved and ends his own life, would that be wrong of him? That is the question that is at hand.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Many supporters of the â€Å"right to die movement† can justify euthanasia. First, because terminal illness is causing pain that is unbearable for that individual. That is the main reason why people seek self-induced death. Second, the thought of a restricted life and depending on others, even for the simplest task, does not appeal to them. Aristotle wrote, â€Å"happiness is the exercise of vital powers along lines of excellence in a life affording them scope.† These people will never find happiness because they cannot live their lives out to the fullest extent that was given to them.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Nancy was only four years old when her grandmother died. Her grandmother had a big lump on the lower right hand side of her back. The doctors removed it, but it was too late. The tumor had already spread throughout her body. Instead of having a lump on her back, she had a long stitched up incision there. She couldn’t move around; Nancy’s parents had to help her go to the bathroom and do all the simple things that she use to do all by herself. Nancy would ask her grandmother to get up to take her younger sister, Linh, and herself outside so they could play. She never got up. A couple of months later, an ambulance came by their house and took their grandmother away. That was the last time Nancy ever saw her alive. She was in the hospital for about a week and a half. Nancy’s parents never took them to see her. One day, Nancy saw her parents crying and she have never seen them cry before. They dropped Linh and her off at one of their friendâ€℠¢s house. Nancy got mad because she thought they were going shopping and didn’t take her with them.

Project C

Your manager has speculated the following: a. the average (mean) annual income was less than $50,000, b. the true population proportion of customers who live in an urban area exceeds 40%, c. the average (mean) number of years lived in the current home is less than 13 years, d. the average (mean) credit balance for suburban customers is more than $4300. 1. Using the sample data, perform the hypothesis test for each of the above situations in order to see if there is evidence to support your manager’s belief in each case a. -d. In each case use the Seven Elements of a Test of Hypothesis, in Section 6. of your text book with ? = . 05, and explain your conclusion in simple terms. Also be sure to compute the p-value and interpret. 2. Follow this up with computing 95% confidence intervals for each of the variables described in a. -d. , and again interpreting these intervals. 3. Write a report to your manager about the results, distilling down the results in a way that would be under standable to someone who does not know statistics. Clear explanations and interpretations are critical. 4. All DeVry University policies are in effect, including the plagiarism policy. 5. Project Part B report is due by the end of Week 6. . Project Part B is worth 100 total points. See grading rubric below Submission: The report from part 3 + all of the relevant work done in the hypothesis testing (including Minitab) in 1. , and the confidence intervals (Minitab) in 2 as an appendix. Format for report: A. Summary Report (about 1 paragraph on each of the speculations a. -d. ) B. Appendix with all of the steps in hypothesis testing (the format of the Seven Elements of a Test of Hypothesis, in Section 6. 2 of your text book) for each speculation a. -d. as well as the confidence intervals, and including all Minitab output

Attachment †Psychology Essay

Developmental Psychology Early Social Development: Attachment Attachment ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ An emotional bond between two people. It is a two-way  process that endures over time. It leads to certain  behaviours such as clinging and proximity-seeking and  serves the function of protecting the infant. ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ Primary attachment figure ï  ® The person who has formed the closest bond with a child,demonstrated by the intensity of the relationship. Usually  the biological mother, but other people can fulfil the role. ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ Learning theory ï  ® A group of explanations which explain behaviour in terms  of learning rather than any innate or higher order  tendencies. Mainly used by behaviourists who rather focus  their explanations purely on what behaviour they observe. Learning Theory ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯Classical Conditioning (Pavlov) Unconditioned Stimulus (US) – food ↓ Unconditioned Response (UR) – pleasure ↓ Neutral Stimulus (NS) – the feeder ↓ Conditioned Stimulus (CS) – food from a feeder ↓ Conditioned Response (CR) – pleasure/attachment Learning Theory ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ Operant Conditioning ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ Reinforcement ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ When doing something results in a pleasant  consequence, the behaviour is more likely to be produced. ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ Punishment ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ When doing something results in an unpleasant  consequence, the behaviour is unlikely to be produced. ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ Dollard and Miller (1950) explain attachment using operant conditioning: ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ When an infant is fed it reduces discomfort and increases pleasure, this serves as a reward and is the primary reinforcer. The person supplying the food is associated  with avoiding discomfort and is the source of reward which  becomes the secondary reinforcer. Attachment occurs  because the child seeks the person who supplies the  reward. Evaluating the Learning Theory ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ Strengths It can provide adequate explanations of how attachments form. ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ Behaviourists argue that since we are made up of the same building blocks of stimulus/response environments experiments done on animals are safe to generalize to human behaviour. ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ Weakness ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ It may be attention and responsiveness from the caregiver that is the primary reinforcer, not food. ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ Learning theory is largely based on studies with non-human animals. Human behaviour may be similar in many ways but learning theory does not consider higher order thinking and emotions that can influence behaviour. ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ Harlow (1959) demonstrated that it is not food but the level of contact and comfort the infant receives that increases attachment levels. The use of young rhesus monkeys were used to demonstrate this. ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ 60 babies were studied in Glasgow and found that attachment was higher to the person who was most responsive and who interacted with them more (Schaffer and Emerson,1964). ï  ® ï  ® Cant explain the importance of sensitivity in attachment. Bowlby’s Attachment Theory (1969) ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ ELEMENTS OF BOWLBY’S ATTACHMENT THEORY: ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ Attachment is adaptive and innate ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ Bowlby’s theory is an evolutionary theory because it sees attachment as a behaviour that adds to its survival and  ultimately its reproductive value. Having attachment  capabilities is an innate drive, similar to imprinting, that has long term benefits ensuring it stays close to its caregiver. ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ Background on the Theory of Evolution ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ Adaptive behaviours are behaviours that increase the  likelihood of survival and reproduction. ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ Natural selection is the continuation of these adaptive traits within the animal to increase chances of survival. ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ Sexual selection is the ability to reproduce, not just survive. Adaptive genes that lead to possessing traits to assist in  reproduction increases sexual selection. Bowlby’s Attachment Theory ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ Sensitive Period ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ A biologically determined period of time during the second quarter of the first year is the most crucial period in which attachments can be made. Once missed then it is more difficult for a child to make attachments and demonstrate social difficulties. ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ Caregiving is adaptive ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ Not only attachment but also caregiving is adaptively innate. Social releasers from the infant give signals to the caregiver (smiling, crying, etc) to take care of it. Attachment is the innate system in babies and caregiving is the innate system in adults. ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ Secure base ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ Having a secure attachment provides a child with a secure base in which to explore the world from. It fosters independence, not dependence. ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ Monotropy and hierarchy ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ Infants form a number of different attachments but has one particular bias towards a very special one called the primary attachment, this is called monotropy. Even with secondary attachments, this hierarchy of attachments recognizes the importance of a primary attachment figure (PAF). The PAF is one that responds most sensitively to the childs social releasers. Secondary attachments are important, without them, children tend to lack social skills. Bowlby’s Attachment Theory ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ Internal working model ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ A mental model of the world that enables individuals to predict and control their environment. The internal  working model based on attachment has several  consequences: ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ In the short-term it gives the child insight into the caregivers behaviour and enables the child to influence  the caregivers behaviour so that a true partnership can be formed. ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ In the long-term it acts as a template for all future relationships because it generates expectations about  how people behave. ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ The continuity hypothesis ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ The idea that emotionally secure infants go on to be  emotionally secure, trusting and socially confident adults. Evaluating Attachment Theory ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ Strengths ï  ® ï  ® ï  ® ï  ® ï  ® Lorenz (1952) supports that imprinting is innate as the goslings imprinted on the first thing they saw moving, which was Lorenz. Research shows that once the sensitive period has passed and no attachments are formed, children display social difficulties with peers. If attachment and caregiving are an important biological function as Bowlby suggests then they would be found universally. Tronick et al (1992) studied an African tribe in Zaire and found despite tribal responsibility for raising kids a PAF is present. This is also evidence of monotropy. Schaffer and Emerson found that the more quickly a caregiver responded to a childs needs and the more interaction they had led to a stronger level of attachment. This interaction is important as it is not enough to have something to cuddle but to actually be cuddled back builds a stronger attachment. The Minnesota longitudinal study (2005) found that continuity between early attachment and later emotional/social behaviour. Infants classified as secure were later rated highest for social competence, less isolated, more empathetic and more popular. Evaluating Attachment Theory ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ Weaknesses ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ Multiple attachments, according to psychologists, are as equally important. There are no primary or secondary  attachments, all attachments are integrated into one single  working model. However, a review the research points to the  hierarchical model as being predominant (Prior and Glaser, ï  ® 2006). An alternative explanation to the continuity hypothesis exists, known as the temperament hypothesis. This is the belief that children form secure attachments simply because they have a more ‘easy’ temperament from birth, whereas more innately difficult children a more likely to form insecure attachments. The infants temperamental characteristics shapes a mothers level of responsiveness. Thomas and Chess (1977) identified infant personality types as easy, difficult and slow-to-warm-up. Belsky and Rovine (1987) found a link between physiological behaviours and later attachments types. The more calm and less anxious (aspects of temperament) an infant was the more likely they were to develop secure attachments. Types of Attachment ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ The Strange Situation (Ainsworth and Wittig, 1969) http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QTsewNrHUHU Aim: to see how infants behave under situations of stress  with the introduction of a stranger and the separation of  the parent. This tests stranger anxiety and separation  anxiety and also the infants willingness to explore with its secure base. Procedure: a 9Ãâ€"9 research room marked off into 16 squares  was used. The procedure consists of 8 episodes†¦ MEMORISE THEM!!! Data is collected by a group of observers that recorded  what the infant was doing every 15 seconds. Observer  noted the type of behaviour and level of intensity on a  scale of 1-7. Types of Attachment ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ The Strange Situation Findings: ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ Ainsworth  combined data from several studies to  make 106 middle-class infants observed. Similarities and differences were found in the way  the infants behaved. In terms of similarities, it was  noted that episode 2 onwards exploratory  behaviour decreased while crying increased. Proximity-seeking and contact-maintaining  increased during separation and when stranger  appeared. Finally, contact-resisting and proximityavoiding behaviours rarely occurred towards the caregiver prior to separation. Types of Attachment ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ The Strange Situation Findings: ï  ® Ainsworth found differences in three main types of children. ï  ® ï  ® Insecure-avoidant: this is a style of attachment characterising those children that tend to avoid social interaction and intimacy with others. ï  ® ï  ® Secure attachment: this is a strong and contented attachment of an infant to his or her caregiver which develops as a result of sensitive responding by the caregiver to the infants needs. Insecure-resistant: this is a style of ambivalent attachment characterising  children who both seek and reject intimacy and social interaction. Main and Solomon (1986) re-analysed the strange situation video tapes and created a fourth attachment type: ï  ® Insecure-disorganised: these infants lack a coherent and consistent strategy for dealing with the stress of separation. Secure % of infants (Ainsworth, 1978) % of infants (Van Ijzendoorn et , 1999) Insecure avoidant Insecure resistant Insecure disorganised 66% 22% 12% XXX 62% 15% 9% 15% Evaluating Types of Attachment ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ Strengths ï  ® Ainsworth’s Strange Situation technique has given psychologists a means to understand and study attachment which can lead to new future findings. ï  ® Intervention strategies have been developed to strengthen caregiving behaviour and attachments types. The Circle of Security Project (Cooper et al, 2005) which teaches caregivers to recognise signs of distress showed a decrease in disordered caregiving and an increase in secure attachment types. It has proven to be experimentally valid as its construct validity has been demonstrated by other studies supporting the four types of attachments and its predictive validity has been demonstrated in correlations between early attachment types and later behaviours. ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ Its findings are also consistent which makes them reliable. Using interobserver reliablity methods, Ainsworth found almost perfect agreement at . 94 between the raters (1.0 is perfect). ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ Weakness ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ Or does it lack validity, because it is intended to measure the attachment type of an infant, BUT does it really simply measure the quality of a particular relationship? Main and Weston (1981) claim it is measuring one relationship instead of something innate within an individual. ï  ® Evaluating Types of Attachment ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ Effects of attachment types ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ Bowlby’s continuity hypothesis would predict that a child’s behaviour later in life would be effected by specific attachment types they develop. ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ Prior and Glaser (2006) found that in later childhood, if as infants they developed a secure attachment type, they would  be less emotionally dependent and possess more  interpersonal harmony. Infants with the other three types  would be more aggressive, negative withdrawn in later  childhood. ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ It would also effect you in your adult romantic lives as well. Hazen and Shaver (1987) conducted the ‘Love Quiz’ which  asked questions about early experiences and current love  experiences and found that there were characteristic  patterns of later romantic behaviour associated with each  early attachment type. Evaluating Types of Attachment ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ Factors that influence attachment type ï  ® Sensitivity ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ Ainsworth developed the Maternal Sensitivity Scale to rate mothers’ behaviour such as sensitivity and insensitivity to infants signals. The scale found: Securely  attached infant Observed  Mothers bx ï  ® ï  ® Insecurely attached infant Avoidant infant Resistant infant  more sensitive,  cooperating Unresponsive to  crying less  affectionate More rejecting and  less attention  giving Preoccupied with  routine activities when  holding infant Maternal reflective functioning ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ Some studies have shown low correlations between measures of sensitivity and strength of attachment. Slade et al (2005) found the ability to understand what someone else is thinking or feeling may be more important. Temperament ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ May play a role as previous research indicates, but it is unclear. Cultural Variations in Attachment ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ KNOW the definitions of culture, cultural variations and the difference between individualistic and collectivistic cultures (pg.45) ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ Cross-cultural Similarities ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ Ainsworth’s Uganda study (1967) ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ Tronick et al (1992) study on the African tribe in Zaire ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ Fox (1977) infants in Isreali kibbutz raised by  nurses when tested in the Strange Situation  appeared equally attached to both caregivers,  except in the reunion behaviour where they  showed greater attachment to their mothers. Cultural Variations in Attachment ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ Cross-cultural Differences ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ Grossman and Grossman (1991) found that German infants appear more insecurely attached rather than secure. This may be due to the different childrearing practices as German culture involves keeping some interpersonal distance from the parent and infant. ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ Takahashi (1990) used the Strange Situation on a group of 60 middle-class infants in Japan and found similar rates of secure attachment. However, the infants showed no evidence of insecure-avoidant and high rates of insecureresistance (32%). Different childrearing practices can explain the difference for in Japan the infants are rarely ever separated from their parents which is why they would be more distressed than their American counterparts. ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ Conclusions ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ These studies suggest that the strongest attachments are still formed with their mothers and that there are differences in attachment that can be related to differences in cultural attitudes. ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ Meta-analysis study by Van IJzendoorn and Kroonenberg (1988) examined over 2000 Strange Situation classification studies in 8 countries. They found the variation between countries and culture were small with secure attachment being the most common in all countries followed by insecure-avoidant except in Japan and Israel. Variations within cultures however were greater. In conclusion the findings appear to be similar to that found in the US and this supports the view that attachment is an innate and biological process. Also data collected on different subcultures should not be generalised to be representative of a particular culture. Criticisms of Research on Cultural Variations ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ Culture bias ï  ® ï  ® ï  ® Rothbaum et al (2000) argued that attachment theory and  research is not relevant to other countries because it is rooted in American culture. For example, the sensitivity hypothesis reflects western ideas of autonomy whereas in Japan sensitivity is about promoting dependence. The continuity hypothesis states that  secure infant attachments create more competent adults, however, this ‘competence’ is defined in terms of individuation. The secure base hypothesis in the west explains secure attached infants as independent and confident exploring whereas in Japan they  promote dependence and the concept of amae and so this can  explain why insecure-resistant behaviours are more typical. Rothbaum concludes that psychologists should produce a set of indigenous theories that are explanations of attachment that are rooted in individual cultures with a small group of universal principles (infant need for protection) but mostly with childcare practices relating to cultural values. Rothbaum was challenged by Posada and Jacobs (2001) which shows that attachment theory does apply to most cultures. Criticisms of Research on Cultural Variations ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ Criticisms of cross-cultural research ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ Tests  of procedures used may not be equally valid  in the country and may make the culture appear  Ã¢â‚¬Ëœinferior’ or ‘abnormal’. This is an example of  imposed etic. This is when a research method is  used in one culture even thought it was designed to  be used in another (intelligence tests or observations). ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ The group that was tested may not be  representative of the culture and yet researchers  might make generalisations about the whole culture  or even the whole country. Disruption of Attachment ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ Effects of Separation ï  ® ï  ® ï  ® ï  ® Spitz and Wolf (1946) observed 100 children in an institution became severely depressed after a few months. Skeels and Dye (1939) found similar children scored lower on intelligence tests. Bifulo et al (1992) found that negative effects of deprivation may occur later in life. When 249 women who had lost their mothers before they were 17 were studied, it was found that they were twice as likely to develop depressive/anxiety disorders later in life. Robertsons (1967-73) made films observing the effects of separation in children: ï  ® ï  ® When given a high level of emotional care and similar structures to that of their home life, the children exhibited some signs of distress, however, slept well and did not reject their PAF when they were reunited. Some were even reluctant to part with the foster mother which is a sign of a good emotional bond. John, however, was in a nursery and not given such attention. He became withdrawn and gave up on proximity seeking bx. When he was reunited with his mother he rejected her for months and demonstrated outbursts of anger towards her. Disruption of Attachment ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ Physical and Emotional Disruption ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ As the research evidence shows differences in the way physical and emotional attention is given can produce  negative effects in children. However, there are studies  that show these ill effects can be reversed. ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ Sigvardsson (1979) studied over 600 adopted children in Sweden and at the age of eleven, 26% of them were  classified as ‘problem children’. However in a follow up study, ten years later they were no worse off than the  average population. ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ So when alternative emotional care is provided, ill effects of separation can be reversed. However, for some  children disruption of attachment leads to permanent  difficulties. ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ To criticise the validity of the research consider that they are based on case studies. Weakness of case studies are  that they are based on generalisations and they depend on  objectivity of the observers and are prone to observer bias. Failure to Form Attachment ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ Isolated children ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ Privation is the lack of having any attachments due to the failure to develop such attachments early in life. ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ Genie ï  ® ï  ® The Czech twins ï  ® ï  ® Locked in a room by her father until she was 13. When discovered she could not stand erect or speak. She was disinterested in people and never recovered socially. Locked away by their step-mother until the age of 7. Were looked after by their sisters and by 14 had normal social and intellectual capabilities. By 20 they had above average intelligence and excellent social skills. Evaluation ï  ® Was unclear whether or not Genie was retarded at birth or if she ever formed an attachment with her mother. The Czech twins may have formed attachments to each other to compensate for complete lack of care. It is difficult to reach firm conclusions based on only these cases. Failure to Form Attachment ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ Institutional Care ï  ® ï  ® Multiple studies show that the effects of institutionalisation within children is acute distress. Longitudinal studies have been conducted to see what long term effects are caused by institutionalisation. ï  ® ï  ® Hodges and Tizard (1989) followed a group of 65 British children from early life to adolescence. Children have been place in an institution from before they were 4 months old. Children have not yet formed attachments at this age. An early study found that 70% of the children were not able to care deeply for anyone. The children were assessed regularly up to the age of 16. Some children remained while most were adopted or restored with their original families. The restored children were less likely to develop an attachment with their mothers but the adopted ones were as closely attached to their adopted parents as the control group. However, both groups had problems with peers and showed signs of disinhibited attachment. These findings suggest that early privation had negative effects on the ability to form relationships even when given good subsequent emotional care. If failure to develop attachments after the sensitive period occur it can have an irreversible effect on emotional development. Failure to Form Attachment ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ Effects of Privation and Institutionalisation ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ Attachment disorder ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ This has been recognised as a psychiatric condition and has been included in the DSMIV. There are two kinds of attachment disorder, inhibited and disinhibited. Children with an attachment disorder have no PAF, cant interact or relate to others before the age of 5 and have experienced severe neglect or frequent changes in caregivers. ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ Poor parenting skills ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ Harlow’s monkeys that were raised with surrogate mothers went on to become poor parents. Also, Quinton et al (1984) found similar findings when he compared 50 women who had been raised in institutions. When the women were in their 20’s the ex-institutionalised mothers were experiencing extreme difficulties acting as parents. ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ Deprivation dwarfism ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ Physical evidence by Gardner (1972) that institutionalised children are physically underdeveloped, potentially caused by stress hormones. ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ Evaluation ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ In the study of Romanian children, one-third recovered well despite not establishing a PAF prior to the sensitive period. Therefore, privation alone cannot explain negative outcomes. This suggests that damage occurs when there are multiple risk factors (Turner and Lloyd, 1995). ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ Not sure if the children failed to form attachments early in life. Maybe they did and the problems they experienced later were more related to rejection. Impact of Day Care ï  ® ï  ® Day Care – the form of temporary care not given by the family or someone well known to the child and usually outside of the home. Social development – the aspect of a child’s growth concerned with the development of sociability, where the child learns to relate to others and with the process of socialisation, the child learns social skills appropriate to the society. ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ Negative effects on social development ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ Meta-analysis from findings of 88 studies supports Bowlby’s research that prolonged separation from the PAF leads to maladjustment. Violata and Russell (1994) concluded that regular day care for more than 20 hrs a week had an unmistakable negative effect on socio-emotional development, behaviour and attachment of young children. ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ NICHD in USA conducted a longitudinal study of over 1000 children. Parents were interviewed regarding the effects of regular day care. The study showed  that the more time a child spent in day care, regardless of quality, the adults rated them as more disobedient and aggressive (NICHD, 2003). The children in day care were 3 times more likely to demonstrate behavioural problems than children that were cared by their mothers. Melhuish (2004) found evidence that children with high levels of day care in the first two years of development had elevated risks of developing anti-social behaviours. ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ The Minnesota longitudinal study demonstrated the more securely attached infants are the more popular with peers they become. So therefore, the more insecure an infant, more peer related problems could be expected. Belsky and Rovine (1988) assessed attachment in children in day care and found that were more likely to be insecurely attached compared to children at home. Impact of Day Care ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ Positive effects on social development ï  ® ï  ® ï  ® ï  ® ï  ® Good day care provides plenty of social stimulation, whereas, children living at home may lack social interactions. Brown and Harris (1978) found depressed mothers contributed  their low moods to being isolated at home with children. Depressed mothers are likely to form insecure attachments with their children which would have a negative effect on their children. Therefore, the independence gained with having a child in day care is a way to prevent this. Clarke-Stewart et al (1994) studied 150 children and found they were consistently more compliant and independent. The EPPE followed 3000 children in pre-schools and found increased sociability (Sylvia et al, 2003). Day care exposes children to their peers thus enabling them to develop social strategies (negotiate and make friends). Field (1991) found a positive correlation between the amount of time in day care and the number of friends children have once they enter school. Also, those that started day care before 6 months were more sociable than those that started later. Evaluating Research on Day Care ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ Weaknesses of research on day care ï  ® When evaluating the research, one must consider the circumstances under which one can find positive or negative outcomes. ï  ® ï  ® ï  ® ï  ® Prodromidis (1995) found no correlation between Swedish children in day care and aggression. Freidman from NICHD explains the aggression study actually shows that day care children may be more aggressive than non-day care, but still 83% of children in day care between 10 -30 hours a week show no signs of aggression. Second important finding from the NICHD research is that the mothers sensitivity to the child, higher maternal education and income all play a more important role in decreased behavioural problems than the amount of time in day care. Finally, the findings are not causal. The data cannot show that day care caused aggression only that there is a link between the two. Therefore, the data suggests that childrens development is more strongly affected by factors at home than those in day care (Belsky et al, 2007). Evaluating Research on Day Care ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ Weaknesses of Research on Day Care ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ Cannot apply a cause relating to peer relations as  well, only a link. For example, shy and unsociable children have mothers that are shy and  unsociable, therefore, its possible that more  outgoing parents/children that go to day care. ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ A lot of research supports the idea that day care  alone has no direct effect on development and  that there are other factors involved. Gregg et al  (2005) analysed findings from the Children of the  90’s study and concluded that for the majority of  children, maternal employment in their first 3  years of life had no adverse effects on behaviour. Evaluating Research on Day Care ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ Mediating Factors ï  ® Quality of Care ï  ® ï  ® Individual Differences ï  ® ï  ® As the quality of care decreases it is expected that the attachment type will become poorer. NICHD study (1997) found that low-quality care was associated with poor social development. As parents have different interests in their child, day care staff are less invested and therefore provide a different kind of attention. This is reflected in Howes and Hamilton (1992) findings  that secure attachments  occurred in only 50% of day care staff but 70% in mothers. The NICHD study found the more secure a child’s attachment level is the better they cope with time spent in day care. However, another study showed that insecure children coped better than secure children (showed more aggressive bx) in day care. Child’s age and number of hours ï  ® ï  ® Gregg et al (2005) found that negative effects were more likely to be found in children starting day care before 18 months of age. However, the magnitude of these effects was small. Clarke-Stewart et al (1994) found no difference in attachment between spending a lot of time in day care (more than 30 hours) with those that spend a little time (less than 10 hours). Implications of Research into Attachment and Day care ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ Attachment Research ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ Attachment research has shown that when separation occurs, negative effects of this separation can be avoided if substitute emotional care can be provided and links to the PAF are made available. This research has changed the way hospitals handle visiting arrangements and the way institutional care is provided. ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ A second implication is the way the adoptions process is managed allowing babies to be adopted earlier strengthening child/parent attachments (Singer, 1985). ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ Another implication is the improvement of parenting skills, ie, Circle of Security, which improves infant/mother relationships. ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ Finally, attachment research has been used to improve day care quality focusing on the importance of secondary attachment figures. ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ Day Care Research ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ As research shows, high quality care leads to positive outcomes. What is highquality care? ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ Low child-staff ratios – 3:1 is ideal for sensitive care to be given ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ Minimal staff turnover – allows for consistent care and decreases anxiety ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ Sensitive emotional care – only 23% of carers demonstrated highly sensitive care, 50% was moderate care and 20% were emotionally detached. ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ Qualified staff – qualified managers lead to better social development ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬ ¯ To ensure high-quality care, legal standards are implemented relating to staff ratio to age of the child, minimum qualifications of staff, Ofsted inspections and finally the sure Start programme.